Use of long non-coding rnas in medulloblastoma

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the field of cancer. More specifically, the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for detecting long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) in medulloblastoma. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method comprising detecting lnc RNA HLX2-7 in a biological sample obtained from a patient having or suspected of having medulloblastoma. In certain embodiments, detecting step is performed using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay. In specific embodiments, the biological sample is a tissue sample. In particular embodiments, the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample. In a specific embodiment, the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to lncHLX2-7 (SEQ ID NO:200) and branched DNA signal amplification.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/938,526, filed Nov. 21, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Application 62/899,619, filed Sep. 12, 2019, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of cancer. More specifically, the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for detecting long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) in medulloblastoma.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ELECTRONICALLY

This application contains a sequence listing. It has been submitted electronically via EFS-Web as an ASCII text file entitled “P15814-03_ST25.txt.” The sequence listing is 55,637 bytes in size, and was created on Sep. 10, 2020. It is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Medulloblastoma (MB), characterized as WHO group IV, represents the most common and highly malignant pediatric central nervous system tumor, representing 9.2% of all pediatric brain tumor cases and roughly 500 new cases of MB are annually diagnosed. MB are localized in the cerebellum, sharing signatures with embryonic cerebellar lineages, from where they commonly metastasize to other parts of the brain and spinal cord, and, rarely, to extraneural sites. Commonly used treatment strategies for MB, including maximal safe surgical resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, are aggressive for patients who are predominantly under 7 years of age. Appropriate treatment therapy selection depends upon clinical subgroup, stage, extent of resection and location, and patient's ability to withstand the treatment. To aide treatment options a combinatorial genome wide sequencing, genetic alteration and DNA methylation approach has improved MB diagnosis into four clinically and molecularly distinct subgroup: wingless (WNT) sonic hedgehog (SHH), group 3 and group 4. Despite these significant advances in early diagnosis and effective treatment approaches, MB remains a deadly disease with around 30% fatality rate. Often eradication of tumor still results in deteriorated overall quality of life due to side effects including organ dysfunction, neurocognitive impairment, endocrine disabilities, and secondary tumors. In addition, even with advances in molecular classification, the defining molecular mechanism remains unknown in group 3 and group 4, making the proper diagnosis and treatment of the respective patient challenging. Hence, there is an urgent need to identify causative molecular mechanism to drive precision medicine based approaches that could improve the quality of life of patients and increase our understanding of MB in general.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Medulloblastoma (MB) is an aggressive brain tumor that predominantly affects children. Recent high-throughput sequencing studies suggest that the non-coding RNA genome, in particular long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), contributes to MB sub-grouping. Here we report the identification of a novel lncRNA, lnc-HLX-2-7, as a potential molecular marker and therapeutic target in group 3 MBs.

Publicly available RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data from 175 MB patients were interrogated to identify lncRNAs that differentiate between MB subgroups. After characterizing a subset of differentially expressed lncRNAs in vitro and in vivo, the group 3-enriched lncRNA lnc-HLX2-7 was deleted by CRISPR/Cas9 in the MB cell line. Intracranial injected tumors were further characterized by bulk and single-cell RNA-sequencing.

lnc-HLX-2-7 is highly upregulated in group 3 MB cell lines, patient-derived xenografts, and primary MBs compared to other MB sub-groups as assessed by qRT-PCR, RNA-seq, and RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Depletion of lnc-HLX-2-7 significantly reduced cell proliferation and 3D colony formation and induced apoptosis. lnc-HLX-2-7-deleted cells injected into mouse cerebella produced smaller tumors than those derived from parental cells. Pathway analysis revealed that lnc-HLX2-7 modulated oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and sirtuin signaling pathways. The MY C oncogene regulated lnc-HLX-2-7 and the small molecule BET-bromodomain (BRD4) inhibitor JQ1 reduced lnc-HLX2-7 expression.

lnc-HLX-2-7 is oncogenic in MB and represents a promising novel molecular marker and a potential therapeutic target in group 3 MBs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1A-F. Identification and validation of the group 3-specific lncRNA, lnc-HLX-2-7. FIG. 1A: Schematic of the identification of group 3-specific lncRNAs in the four MB subgroups (WNT, SHH, group 3 and group 4). FIG. 1B: Top 50 lncRNAs with the highest expression in group 3 MBs compared to other MB subgroups are shown. x-axis indicates p-value (−log 10) of each lncRNA and y-axis indicates fold change value (log 2) of each lncRNA. FIG. 1C: The heat map represents the similarity of expression within group 3 MBs of each lncRNA shown in (B). FIG. 1D: Boxplot showing distribution of normalized expression values of lnc-HLX-1, lnc-HLX-2, lnc-HLX-5, and lnc-HLX-6 in WNT, SHH, group 3 and group 4 MBs. Dots represent the expression value for each MB patient. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis. FIG. 1E-1F: qRT-PCR analysis showing the distribution of normalized expression values of lnc-HLX-2-7 in MB cell lines (FIG. 1E) and PDX samples (FIG. 1F) of group 3, group 4, and SSH MBs. Values indicate fold change relative to cerebellum.

FIG. 2A-2F. Effects of lnc-HLX-2-7 expression on the proliferation and apoptosis of group 3 MB cells. FIG. 2A: Expression level of lnc-HLX-2-7 in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with ASO against the genes indicated on the x-axis. Relative expression level to mock (non-transfected) is indicated on the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis. Viable cell numbers (FIG. 2B) and apoptotic cell numbers (FIG. 2C) in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with either ASO-luc or ASO-lnc-HLX-2-7. Relative value to mock is indicated on the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis. FIG. 2D: Expression level of lnc-HLX-2-7 in D425 Med and MED211 control (CTRL) and D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA (lnc-HLX-2-7) cells. Relative expression level to CTRL is indicated on the y-axis. *p<0.01, Student's t-test. FIG. 2E: Cell viability assays performed with D425 Med and MED211 control (CTRL) and D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA (lnc-HLX-2-7) cells. Points represent the mean and standard deviation of three biological replicates. *p<0.01, Student's t-test. FIG. 2F: Colony formation assays performed with D425 Med and MED211 control (CTRL) and D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA (lnc-HLX-2-7) cells. Three independent experiments were performed, and data are presented as mean±SD. *p<0.01, Student's t-test.

FIG. 3A-3E. lnc-HLX-2-7 promotes the tumorigenicity of group 3 MB cells in vivo. FIG. 3A: D425 Med and MED211 control (CTRL) and D425 Med- and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA (lnc-HLX-2-7) cells expressing luciferase were implanted into the right forebrains of NOD-SCID mice, and tumor formation was assessed by bioluminescence imaging. Changes in bioluminescent signal were examined weekly after tumor implantation. FIG. 3B: Quantification of total photon counts from mice implanted with D425 Med and MED211 control (CTRL) and D425 Med- and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA (lnc-HLX-2-7) cells. n=9, *p<0.05, Student's t-test. FIG. 3C: Ki67 and (D) TUNEL staining of xenograft tumors. Nuclei are stained with DAPI. Scale bars, 50 μm. Quantification of Ki67 and TUNEL-positive cells were shown. *p<0.05, Student's t-test. FIG. 3E: Overall survival was determined by Kaplan-Meier analysis, and the log-rank test was applied to assess the differences between groups. *p<0.05, Mantel-Cox log-rank test.

FIG. 4A-4D. MYC regulates the expression of lnc-HLX-2-7 in group 3 MB. FIG. 4A: Expression levels of MYC and lnc-HLX-2-7 in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with siRNA against the indicated genes on the x-axis. Relative expression level to mock (non-transfected) is indicated on the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis. FIG. 4B: Schematic diagram showing E-box motifs around the TSS of lnc-HLX-2-7. Open circles indicate E-box motifs. Arrows show the primer location of ChIP-qPCR. FIG. 4C: Enrichment of MYC in the lnc-HLX-2-7 promoter regions in DAOY, D425 Med, and MED211 cells. Enrichment is expressed as a percentage of input DNA. *p<0.01, Student's t-test. FIG. 4D: Expression level of MYC and lnc-HLX-2-7 in D425 Med, and MED211 cells treated with JQ1. Values are indicated relative to abundance in DMSO-treated cells. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis.

FIG. 5A-5G. RNA sequencing detects lnc-HLX-2-7 interacting genes and pathways. FIG. 5A: Heatmap representation of genes up and downregulated after lnc-HLX2-7 depletion in D425 xenografts. FIG. 5B: Molecular and cellular functions and diseases associated with these genes. FIG. 5C: IPA Canonical Pathway analysis was performed to predict signaling pathway activity. The 10 most significant pathways with lowest p-values are presented. FIG. 5D: Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) plot of transcriptionally distinct cell populations from aggregate CTRL and lnc-HLX-2-7-deleted xenograft scRNA-seq samples. Five distinct clusters (1-5) were identified. FIG. 5E: UMAP plot with CTRL and lnc-HLX-2-7-deleted xenograft samples highlighted. Bar chart indicates the percentage of cells from each xenograft sample for the clusters corresponding to FIG. 5D. FIG. 5F: IPA Canonical Pathway analysis to predict signaling pathway activity in clusters 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The top canonical pathways with lowest adjusted p-values are shown. FIG. 5G: Pseudotemporal trajectory of cells from CTRL to lnc-HLX-2-7-deleted cells. Numbered circle with white background denotes the root node selected for pseudotemporal ordering, black circles represent branch nodes (where cells can proceed to different outcomes), and gray circles indicate different outcomes. The red trajectory denotes the structure of pseudotime graph. Cell colors denote the progression of cells along pseudotime.

FIG. 6A-6E. RNA-FISH confirms that lnc-HLX-2-7 expression is specific to group 3 MB patients. FIG. 6A: Representative RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC in MB tissues. RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC in group 3 MB patients (upper panels) and group 4 MB patients (lower panels). FIG. 6B: Representative RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYCN in MB tissues. RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYCN in group 3 MB patients (upper panels) and group 4 MB patients (lower panels). Nuclei are stained with DAPI. Scale bars, 10 μm. FIG. 6C: The spot numbers relating to lnc-HLX-2-7, MYC, and MY CN were quantified per cell in group 3 and group 4 MB patients. n=20, *p<0.01, Student's t-test. FIG. 6D: Correlation between lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC expression in group 3 MB patients. n=20, *p<0.01, Pearson correlation coefficient. FIG. 6E: Kaplan-Meier survival curves of group 3 MB patients according to lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC expression. n=10, *p<0.01, log-rank test.

FIG. 7A-7D. Location of HLX and lnc-HLX-2-7 and expression levels of lnc-HLX-2-7 variants. FIG. 7A: lnc-HLX-2-7 is a 517 bp intronic lncRNA encoded within the HLX gene located 2300 bp downstream of the HLX gene. The fourth and the fifth exons of the lnc-HLX-2-7 are repeated elements. The first exon has a 32 bp repeat at its end, while the second and third exons are non-repeated. FIG. 7B: lnc-HLX-2 contains 11 transcripts (lnc-HLX-2-1 to lnc-HLX-2-11). FIG. 7C: Boxplot showing distribution of normalized expression values of 11 transcripts (lnc-HLX-2-1 to lnc-HLX-2-11) of lnc-HLX-2 in group 3 MBs. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis. FIG. 7D: Boxplot showing distribution of normalized expression values of lnc-HLX-2-7 in the eight molecular subtypes of group 3 and group 4 MB. Dots represent the expression value for each MB patient. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis.

FIG. 8. lnc-HLX-2-7 regulates the expression of HLX coding gene. Expression levels of HLX in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with ASO against the indicated genes in the x-axis. Relative expression level to mock is indicated in the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis.

FIG. 9A-9B. Effects of HLX expression on the proliferation of D425 Med and MED211. FIG. 9A: Expression levels of HLX in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with siRNA against the indicated genes in the x-axis. FIG. 9B: Viable cell numbers in D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with either si-NC or si-HLX. Relative value to mock is indicated in the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis.

FIG. 10A-10C. JQ1 regulates lnc-HLX2-7 via MYC in vivo. FIG. 10A: D425 Med and MED211 cells expressing luciferase were implanted into the right forebrains of NOD-SCID mice. Seven days after injection, mice were administered DMSO or JQ1. Tumor formation was assessed by bioluminescence imaging. Changes in bioluminescent signal were examined weekly after tumor implantation. FIG. 10B: Quantification of total photon counts from mice treated with JQ1 or DMSO. n=4, *p<0.05, Student's t-test. FIG. 10C: Expression levels of MY C and lnc-HLX-2-7 were examined by qPCR in DMSO or JQ1-treated mouse xenografts. Relative expression levels compared to those in the DMSO-treated tumor are indicated on the y-axis (n=4). Error bars indicate s.e.m. n=4, *p<0.01, Student's t-test.

FIG. 11A-11C. Overexpression of lnc-HLX-2-7 rescued cell growth inhibition and downregulation of MYC by JQ1. FIG. 11A: Expression levels of lnc-HLX-2-7 in pcDNA4 or pcDNA4-lnc-HLX-2-7-expressing D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with JQ1. Relative value to pcDNA4 is indicated in the y-axis. *p<0.01, Student's t-test. FIG. 11B-11C: Viable cell numbers (FIG. 11B) and expression level of MYC (FIG. 11C) in pcDNA4 or pcDNA4-lnc-HLX-2-7-expressing D425 Med and MED211 cells treated with JQ1. Relative value to DMSO is indicated in the y-axis. *p<0.01, Kruskal-Wallis analysis.

FIG. 12A-12C. lnc-HLX2-7 interacting pathway genes in D425 Med cells. FIG. 12A: Heatmap representation of genes up- and downregulated after lnc-HLX2-7 depletion in D425 Med cells (p<0.05). FIG. 12B: Molecular and cellular functions and diseases associated with these genes. FIG. 12C: The most significant upstream regulators inhibited by depletion of lnc-HLX-2-7.

FIG. 13. qPCR validation of D425 Med xenograft RNA-sequencing data. Expression levels of lnc-HLX-2-7, PTGR1, FDZ6, TRPM, NAMPT, NRBP2, NBAT1, CCNG2, ELK4, CDKN2C, CDK6, SOX4, CHD7, MYC, ETC2, NME7, GRA15-AS1, MYBPH, GPR158-AS1, NCAM1-AS1, KANTR, POTEI, ZEB2-AS1, and NR1D1 were examined by qPCR in D425 Med xenografts. Relative expression levels compared with those in the CTRL tumors are indicated on the y-axis (n=3). Error bars indicate s.e.m. *p<0.01, Student's t-test.

FIG. 14. Boxplots showing the distribution of percentage of reads emanating from mitochondrial genes before and after filtering cells based on mitochondrial content. Cells were filtered for <10% mitochondrial percentage prior to analysis using Seurat and Monocle3.

FIG. 15. Graph path corresponding to transition of cells from cluster 1 through 5. Selected cells (in purple) along a selected trajectory for pseudotemporal graph test to determine significant genes that vary along the chosen path. The UMAP space corresponds to FIG. 5D.

FIG. 16A-16B. Confirmation of the specificity of the lnc-HLX-2-7 probe. FIG. 16A: Representation of RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC in MB tissues. RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC in normal mouse brains (upper panels) and D425 Med xenografts (lower panels). Nuclei are stained with DAPI. Scale bars, 10 μm. FIG. 16B: The spot numbers relating to lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC were quantified per cell in normal mouse brain and D425 Med xenograft. *p<0.01.

FIG. 17A-17C. RNA-FISH confirms that lnc-HLX-2-7 is not expressed in SHH MB patients. RNA-FISH analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MY C (FIG. 17A) or MY CN (FIG. 17B) in SHH MB tissues. Nuclei are stained with DAPI. Scale bars, 10 μm. FIG. 17C: The spot numbers relating to lnc-HLX-2-7, MYC, and MYCN were quantified per cell in Group 3, Group 4, and SHH MB patients. n=20, *p<0.01.

FIG. 18. Expression analysis of lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC in clinical MB samples. Correlation between lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC expression in clinical MB samples. Data were obtained from RNA sequencing data from 175 MB patients (ICGC). Each comparison is performed between the genes indicated on the x- and y-axes, respectively.

FIG. 19. Spry4-IT1 (“SPRIGHTLY”). RNA is expressed in medulloblastoma group 4 patient samples, but not in group 3. Sprightly (red), MYCN (green) are visualized in FFPE samples in group 4, but not in group 3. DAPI (blue) is stained to depict the nuclei. The control does not show the expression of either Sprightly or MYCN.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

It is understood that the present invention is not limited to the particular methods and components, etc., described herein, as these may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is used for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to a “protein” is a reference to one or more proteins, and includes equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art and so forth.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Specific methods, devices, and materials are described, although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention.

All publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference including all journal articles, books, manuals, published patent applications, and issued patents. In addition, the meaning of certain terms and phrases employed in the specification, examples, and appended claims are provided. The definitions are not meant to be limiting in nature and serve to provide a clearer understanding of certain aspects of the present invention.

Accordingly, in one aspect, the present invention provides methods and compositions useful for detecting long non-coding (lnc) RNAs. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method comprising detecting lnc RNA HLX2-7 in a biological sample obtained from a patient having or suspected of having medulloblastoma. In certain embodiments, detecting step is performed using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay. In specific embodiments, the biological sample is a tissue sample. In particular embodiments, the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample. In a specific embodiment, the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to lncHLX2-7 (SEQ ID NO:200) and branched DNA signal amplification. In a more specific embodiment, the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:3-4 and 8-21. In an alternative embodiment, the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:3-4 and 8-21. In another embodiment, the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:5-7. In yet another embodiment, the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:5-7.

In another embodiment, the method further comprises detecting MYC expression in the biological sample. In specific embodiments, the biological sample is a tissue sample. In particular embodiments, the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample. In a specific embodiment, the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to MYC (SEQ ID NO:202) and branched DNA signal amplification. In a more specific embodiment, the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:51-56, 59-60, 62-63, 66-69, 72-73, 75-78, 81-98, 101-102. In a range of ‘n’ probes where ‘n’ is the total number of listed probes, the term “at least one of” includes the terms at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, at least 20 . . . up to and including n probes.

In an alternative embodiment, the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:51-56, 59-60, 62-63, 66-69, 72-73, 75-78, 81-98, 101-102. In another embodiment, the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:57-58, 61, 64-65, 70-71, 74, 79-80, 99-100. In yet another embodiment, the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:57-58, 61, 64-65, 70-71, 74, 79-80, 99-100.

In embodiments detecting HLX2-7 and/or MYC expression, the method can further comprise detecting lnc RNA SPRY4-IT1 in the biological sample. In specific embodiments, the biological sample is a tissue sample. In particular embodiments, the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample. In a specific embodiment, the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to SPRY4-IT1 (SEQ ID NO:201) and branched DNA signal amplification. In a more specific embodiment, the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:22-25 and 27-50. In an alternative embodiment, the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:22-25 and 27-50. In another embodiment, the probes further comprise SEQ ID NO:26.

In embodiments detecting HLX2-7, MYC and/or SPRY4-IT1 expression, the method can further comprise detecting MYCN in the biological sample. In specific embodiments, the biological sample is a tissue sample. In particular embodiments, the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample. In a specific embodiment, the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to MYCN (SEQ ID NO:203) and branched DNA signal amplification. In a more specific embodiment, the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:103-104, 107-108, 111-112, 114-125, 127-130, 133-144, 147-152. In an alternative embodiment, the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:103-104, 107-108, 111-112, 114-125, 127-130, 133-144, 147-152. In another embodiment, the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:105-106, 109-110, 113, 126, 131-132, 145-146. In yet another embodiment, the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:105-106, 109-110, 113, 126, 131-132, 145-146.

In additional embodiments, the method can further comprise one or more lnc RNA selected from the group consisting of MIR100HG, USP2-AS1, lnc-CFAP100-4, ARHGEF7-AS2, lnc-HLX-1, lnc-EXPH5-2, lnc-CH25H-2, and lnc-TDRP-3. Such lnc RNAs can be used to distinguish Group 3 MB from Group 4 MB.

The compositions and methods of the present invention can be used to differentiate Group 3 MB from Group 4 MB. As described herein, HLX2-7 can be used to differentiate Group 3 MB from Group 4 MB. HLX2-7 is a Group 3 specific lncRNA in MB. In other embodiments, HLX2-7 and MYC can be used together as Group 3 MBs have a higher MYC oncogene expression compared to other MB groups.

In further embodiments, the compositions and methods of the present invention also utilize detection of SPRY4-IT1 (“SPRIGHTLY”) and/or MYCN. SPRY4-IT1 is highly expressed primarily in Group 4 MB as compared to other groups. MYCN is also useful as a negative control for Group 3, as expression of MYCN is seen in Group 4.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for classifying all MB subgroups. In one embodiment, an 11 lnc RNA panel comprising MIR100HG, lnc-CFAP100-4, ENSG00000279542, lnc-ABCE1-5, USP2-AS1, lnc-RPL12-4, OTX2-AS1, lnc-TBC1D16-3, ENSG00000230393, ENGSG00000260249, and lnc-CCL2-2 is detected. In another embodiment, a 14 lnc RNA panel comprising DPYSL4, HUNK, PDIAS, PYY, CACNA1A, RBM24, KIF26A, DISP3, GABRA5, COL25A1, TENM1, GAD1, ADAMTSL1, and FBXL7 is detected. In an alternative embodiment, a 9 lnc RNA panel comprising MIR100HG, lnc-CFAP100-4, ENSG00000279542, lnc-ABCE1-5, USP2-AS1, lnc-RPL12-4, OTX2-AS1, lnc-TBC1D16-3, and ENSG00000230393 is detected.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for prognosing patients having MB. In one embodiment, a 17 lnc RNA panel comprising lnc-TMEM258-3, ZNRF3-AS1, lnc-TMEM121-3, MAP3K14-AS1, LINC01152, KLF3-AS1, lnc-PRR34-1, lnc-FOXD4L5-25, AC209154.1, TTC28-AS1, FAM222A-AS1, LINC00336, LINC-01551, H19, lnc-RRM2-3, lnc-CDYL-1, and AL139393.2 is detected. See Table 6 which includes favorable prognosis markers and less favorable prognostic markers.

It is understood that in the embodiments in which a panel of lnc RNAs is detected, that the scope of such embodiments includes at least one of the recited panel. In a range of ‘n’ lnc RNAs where ‘n’ is the total number of listed lnc RNAs, the term “at least one of” includes the terms at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16 . . . up to and including at least n lnc RNAs. For example, it is understood that in the 11 lnc RNA panel useful for classifying all MB subgroups, one can utilize at least one of the 11 lnc RNAs and such embodiments include at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10 and 11 lnc RNAs.

In particular embodiments, the methods of the present invention utilize a FISH assay. In such embodiments, the assay utilizes probe sets for the target RNA and branched DNA signal amplification. For example, a probe set of oligonucleotide pairs hybridizes to the target RNA. Signal amplification is achieve through hybridization of adjacent oligonucleotide pairs to bDNA structured, which are formed by pre-amplifiers, amplifiers and fluorochrome-conjugated label probes. These embodiments result in greater specificity, lower background and higher signal-to-noise ratios. The probes useful for detection of HLX2-7, MYC, SPRY4-IT1, MYCN and MALAT1 (a control) are shown in Tables 1-5, respectively. Such oligos include label extenders and blocker oligos.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods useful for detecting HLX2-7, as well as SPRY4-IT1, MYC and/or MYCN in cerebrospinal fluid. In such embodiments, the targets are detected in CSF using polymerase chain reaction including, but not limited to, qPCR and digital PCR.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods of treatment. Such methods can include the detection of HLX2-7, as well as SPRY4-IT1, MYC and/or MYCN, followed by treatment of the patient. Further embodiments include detection of at least one of MIR100HG, USP2-AS1, lnc-CFAP100-4, ARHGEF7-AS2, lnc-HLX-1, lnc-EXPH5-2, lnc-CH25H-2, and lnc-TDRP-3. In still further embodiments, detection can include the lnc RNA panels also described herein. Treatment can include maximal safe surgical resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy (e.g., cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, lomustine, in various dosing regimens; standard dosing is typically 9 cycles, high dose is typically 4 cycles). Combination treatment can be used including, but not limited to, pemetrexed and gemcitabine. Surgery may be needed to treat hydrocephalus (fluid build-up in the skull) and to remove the tumor. Treatment can further include (alone or in combination) endoscopic third ventirculostomy (ETV) or ventriculo-peritoneal shunt (VP shunt). Indeed, the markers described herein can be used to decide whether to reduce radiation, provide a prognosis and reduce chemo exposure

In another aspect, lnc-HLX2-7 can be used as a target for therapy. In certain embodiments, expression of lnc-HLX2-7 can be disrupted. Knock out technology can comprise gene editing. For example, gene editing can be performed using a nuclease, including CRISPR associated proteins (Cas proteins, e.g., Cas9), Zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nuclease (TALEN), and meganucleases. In other embodiments, expression of the target can be disrupted using RNA interference technology including, but not limited to, a short interfering RNA (siRNA) molecule, a microRNA (miRNA) molecule, or an antisense molecule.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides one or more probes useful in the methods described herein. In one embodiment, the probes bind HLX2-7 and comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:3-21. In another embodiment, the probes bind SPRY4-IT and comprise at least one SEQ ID NOS:22-50.

Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art, using the preceding description, can utilize the present invention to the fullest extent. The following examples are illustrative only, and not limiting of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how the compounds, compositions, articles, devices, and/or methods described and claimed herein are made and evaluated, and are intended to be purely illustrative and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.) but some errors and deviations should be accounted for herein. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in degrees Celsius or is at ambient temperature, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. There are numerous variations and combinations of reaction conditions, e.g., component concentrations, desired solvents, solvent mixtures, temperatures, pressures and other reaction ranges and conditions that can be used to optimize the product purity and yield obtained from the described process. Only reasonable and routine experimentation will be required to optimize such process conditions.

Example 1: The Long Non-Coding RNA Lnc-HLX-2-7 is Oncogenic in Group 3 Medulloblastomas

Group 3 MBs are associated with poor clinical outcomes, are difficult to subtype clinically, and their biology is poorly understood. In an effort to address these problems, we identified a group 3-specific long non-coding RNA, lnc-HLX-2-7, in an in silico analysis of 175 MBs and confirmed its expression in group 3 MB cell lines, patient-derived xenografts, and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples. Knockdown of lnc-HLX-2-7 significantly reduced cell growth and induced apoptosis. Deletion of lnc-HLX-2-7 in cells injected into mouse cerebellums reduced tumor growth compared to parental cells, and bulk and single-cell RNA-seq of these tumors revealed lnc-HLX-2-7-associated modulation of cell viability, cell death, and energy metabolism signaling pathways. The MYC oncogene regulated lnc-HLX-2-7, and its expression was reduced by JQ1. lnc-HLX-2-7 is a candidate biomarker and a potential therapeutic target in group 3 MBs.

Introduction

Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor.¹ Recent large-scale and high-throughput analyses have subclassified MBs into four molecularly distinct subgroups, each characterized by specific developmental origins, molecular features, and prognoses.¹⁻⁴ The well characterized WNT and SHH subgroups have been causally linked to activated wingless and sonic hedgehog developmental cascades, respectively.¹ However, significant gaps remain in our understanding of the signaling pathways underlying group 3 and group 4 MBs, which account for 60% of all diagnoses and are frequently metastatic at presentation (˜40%).⁴ Group 3 and group 4 tumors display significant clinical and genetic overlap, including similar location and presence of isochromosome 17q, and identifying these subgroups can be challenging without the application of multi-gene expression or methylation profiling. Therefore, improved understanding of group 3 tumor drivers and theranostic targets is urgently needed.

The vast majority of the genome serves as a template not only for coding RNAs but also non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Of the non-coding RNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which describe a class of RNAs >200 nucleotides in length, have been widely investigated and identified as key regulators of various biological processes including cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion.⁵⁻⁸ LncRNAs are functionally diverse and participate in transcriptional silencing,⁹ function as enhancers,¹⁰ and sequester miRNAs from their target sites.¹¹ LncRNAs can also act as hubs for protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid interactions.¹² There is now a considerable body of evidence implicating lncRNAs in both health and disease, not least human tumorigenesis.^(8,13,14) It has recently been reported that various lncRNAs play important roles in MB biology,^(2,15-18) although the functional significance of many remains uncertain. Since many lncRNAs are uniquely expressed in specific cancer types,¹⁹ they may function as powerful MB subgroup-specific biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

By analyzing RNA sequencing data derived from human MBs, here we report that the novel lncRNA lnc-HLX-2-7 differentiates group 3 from other MBs. CRISPR/Cas9 deletion of lnc-HLX-2-7 in group 3 MB cells significantly reduced cell growth in vitro and in vivo. RNA sequencing of xenografts revealed lnc-HLX-2-7-associated modulation of cell viability and cell death signaling pathways. lnc-HLX-2-7 is a promising novel biomarker and potential therapeutic target for group 3 MBs.

Materials and Methods

MB tissue and RNA samples. Eighty MB tissue samples obtained from a tumor database maintained by the Department of Pathology at the Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) were analyzed (Table 7) under IRB approved protocol NA_00015113. Detailed information about the RNA samples are described in the Supplementary Materials and Methods.

Patient in silico data. Raw FASTQ files for RNA sequencing data corresponding to 175 MB patients (referred to as the ICGC dataset) belonging to the four MB subgroups (accession number EGAS00001000215) were downloaded from the European Genome-Phenome Archive (EGA, http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ega/) after obtaining Institutional Review Board approval.²⁰

Cell culture. Cell lines were authenticated using single tandem repeat profiling. D425 Med cells were cultured in DMEM/F12 with 10% serum and 1% glutamate/penicillin/streptomycin. MED211 cells were cultured in medium composed of 30% Ham's F12/70% DMEM, 1% antibiotic antimycotic, 20% B27 supplement, 5 μg/mL heparin, 20 ng/mL EGF, and 20 ng/mL FGF2. DAOY cells were cultured in DMEM with 10% serum and 1% glutamate/penicillin/streptomycin. All cells were grown in a humidified incubator at 37° C., 5% CO₂. For blocking of BET bromodomain protein in D425 Med and MED211 cells, JQ1 (SML1524-5MG, Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) was added, and the medium was changed every other day.

Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Total RNA was purified using the Direct-zol RNA Miniprep kit (Zymo Research, Irvine, Calif.). To obtain RNA from xenografts, tumor tissues were pulverized and then used for purification. Quantitative PCR was carried out using SYBR Green mRNA assays as previously described.⁸ Primer sequences are listed in Table 8.

ASO-lnc-HLX2-7. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) were designed using the Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT) Antisense Design Tool (IDT, Coralville, Iowa). ASO knockdowns were performed with 50 nM (final concentration) locked nucleic acid (LNA) GapmeRs transfected with Lipofectamine 3000 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Mass.). All ASOs were modified with phosphorothioate (PS) linkages. The following ASOs were used: ASO targeting lnc-HLX-2-7 (ASO-lnc-HLX-2-7): +T*+G*+A*G*A*G*A*T*T*A*A*T*C*T*A*G*A*T*+T*+G*+C (SEQ ID NO:240) and control ASO targeting luciferase (ASO-Luc): +T*+C*+G*A*A*G*T*A*C*T*C*A*G*C*G*T*A*A*+G*+T*+T (SEQ ID NO:241). The PS linkages are indicated with * and LNA-modified oligonucleotides are indicated with +.

siRNA-mediated knockdown of HLX, MYC, and MY CN. siRNAs targeting HLX (catalog no. 4427037, ID: s6639) and MYC (catalog no. 4427037, ID: s9129) were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific. siRNAs were transfected at 20 nM for 48 h using Lipofectamine RNAiMAX (Thermo Fisher Scientific). The efficiency was determined by qRT-PCR.

Cell proliferation, apoptosis, and 3D colony formation assays. Cells were plated in 96-well plates at 5×10³ cells per well in triplicate. After 72 hours of ASO or siRNA transfection, living cells were counted by trypan blue staining. Apoptotic cells were analyzed using a GloMax luminometer (Promega, Fitchburg, Wis.) with conditions optimized for the Caspase-Glo 3/7 Assay. For the 3D colony formation assay, cells were seeded in 24-well plates at a density of 1×10² cells/well and were stained with crystal violet solution approximately 14 days later. Colony number was determined using the EVE cell counter (Nano Entek, Pleasanton, Calif.), and staining intensity was analyzed using ImageJ software.

lnc-HLX-2-7 CRISPR/Cas9 knockdown in D425 Med cells. The single guide RNA (sgRNA) targeting lnc-HLX-2-7 was designed using Zhang Lab resources (http://crispr.mit.edu/) and synthesized to make the lenti-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA-Cas9 constructs as described previously.²¹ The DNA sequences for generating sgRNA were forward: 5′-GGACCCACTCTCCAACGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) and reverse: 5′-GCAGGGACCCCTCATTGACG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:2). For the control plasmid, no sgRNA sequence was inserted into the construct. Lnc-HLX-2-7-edited cells and control cells were selected using 4 μg/ml puromycin. To determine the genome editing effect, total RNA was extracted from the lnc-HLX-2-7-edited cells and control cells and the expression of lnc-HLX-2-7 quantified by qRT-PCR.

Medulloblastoma xenografts (intracranial). All mouse studies were approved and performed in accordance with the policies and regulations of the Animal Care and Use Committee of Johns Hopkins University. Intracranial MB xenografts were established by injecting D425 Med cells, MED211 cells, D425 Med cells with lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted, and MED211 cells with lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted into the cerebellums of NOD-SCID mice (Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Me.). Cerebellar coordinates were −2 mm from lambda, +1 mm laterally, and 1.5 mm deep. Seven days after injection, mice were administered JQ1 (50 mg/kg) or vehicle alone (DMSO) on alternating days via intraperitoneal injection for 14 days. Tumor growth was evaluated by weekly bioluminescence imaging using an in vivo spectral imaging system (IVIS Lumina II, Xenogen, Alameda, Calif.).

Immunohistochemistry. For the analysis of cell proliferation, tumor sections were incubated with anti-Ki67 (Alexa Fluor 488 Conjugate) antibodies (#11882, 1:200, Cell Signaling Technology, Danvers, Mass.) at 4° C. overnight. For the analysis of apoptosis, DeadEnd™ Fluorometric TUNEL System (Promega) was performed on the tumor sections, according to the manufacturer's instructions. The stained sections were imaged using a confocal laser-scanning microscope (Nikon Cl confocal system, Nikon Corp, Tokyo, Japan). The acquired images were processed using the NIS (Nikon) and analyzed with the Image J software (https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/).

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Cells (1×10⁶) were treated with 1% formaldehyde for 8 minutes to crosslink histones to DNA. The cell pellets were resuspended in lysis buffer (1% SDS, 10 mmol/L EDTA, 50 mmol/L Tris-HCl pH 8.1, and protease inhibitor) and sonicated using a Covaris 5220 system (Covaris Inc., Woburn, Mass.). After diluting the cell lysate 1:10 with dilution buffer (1% Triton-X, 2 mmol/L EDTA, 150 mmol/L NaCl, 20 mmol/L Tris-HCl pH 8.1), diluted cell lysates were incubated for 16 h at 4° C. with Dynabeads Protein G (100-03D, Thermo Fisher Scientific) precoated with 5 μL of anti-MYC antibody (ab32, Abcam, Cambridge, UK). ChIP products were analyzed by SYBR Green ChIP-qPCR using the primers listed in Table 9.

RNA library construction and sequencing. Total RNA was prepared from cell lines and orthotopic xenografts using Direct-zol RNA Miniprep kits (Zymo Research, Irvine, Calif.). RNA quality was determined with the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer Nano Assay (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.). Using a TruSeq Stranded Total RNA library preparation Gold kit (Illumina Inc., San Diego, Calif.), strand-specific RNA-seq libraries were constructed as per the instructions. The quantification and quality of final libraries were determined using KAPA PCR (Kapa Biosystems, Waltham, Mass.) and a high-sensitivity DNA chip (Agilent Technologies), respectively. Libraries were sequenced on an Illumina NovaSeq 6000 using 1×50 base paired-end reads. Detailed methods of sequence and data analysis are described in Supplementary Materials and Methods.

Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA). To analyze pathways affected by lnc-HLX-2-7, differentially expressed genes between D425 Med and D425 Med with lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted were compiled and analyzed using Qiagen's IPA. Analysis was conducted via the IPA web portal.

Data availability. RNA-seq data described in the manuscript is accessible at NCBI GEO accession number GSE151810 and GSE156043, which is expressly incorporated by reference.

RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (RNA-FISH). RNA was visualized in paraffin-embedded tissue sections using the QuantiGene ViewRNA ISH Tissue Assay Kit (Affymetrix, Frederick, Md.). In brief, tissue sections were rehydrated and incubated with proteinase K. Subsequently, they were incubated with ViewRNA probesets designed against human lnc-HLX-2-7, MYC, and MY CN (Affymetrix, Santa Clara, Calif.). Custom Type 1 primary probes targeting lnc-HLX-2-7, Type 6 primary probes targeting MYC, and Type 6 primary probes targeting MY CN were designed and synthesized by Affymetrix (Tables 1, 3 and 4). Hybridization was performed according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Statistical analysis. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism software and Limma R package. Data are presented as mean±SD of three independent experiments. Differences between two groups were analyzed by the paired Student's t-test and correlations with the Pearson correlation coefficient. Kruskal-Wallis analysis was used to evaluate the differences between more than two groups. Survival analysis was performed using the Kaplan—Meier method and compared using the log-rank test.

Results

Identification of the group 3-specific long-noncoding RNA, lnc-HLX-2-7. To identify MB group 3-specific lncRNAs, we obtained 175 RNA-seq files (FASTq) representing the four MB subgroups (WNT, SHH, group 3 and group 4) from the European Genome-Phenome Archive (EGA) and applied combined GENCODE and LNCipedia annotations.²² Given the need to find novel biomarkers that differentiate group 3 from other groups, we identified a set of lncRNAs (lnc-HLX-1, lnc-HLX-2, lnc-HLX-5, and lnc-HLX-6) with markedly elevated and significant overexpression in group 3 MB (FIG. 1A, B and Table 10). lnc-HLX-1, lnc-HLX-2, lnc-HLX-5, and lnc-HLX-6 showed a high expression correlation (FIG. 1C) and were highly expressed in group 3 MB patient samples compared to other subgroups (p<0.01, FIG. 1D). We recently reported that some of these lncRNAs also show group 3-specific differential expression.²³ Due to lnc-HLX-2's proximity to its host coding gene transcription factor and homeobox gene HB24 (HLX) and a recent study reporting that the lnc-HLX-2 region is a group 3 MB-specific enhancer region (not shown),²⁴ we focused on lnc-HLX-2. lnc-HLX-2 is located 2300 bp downstream of the transcriptional start site (TSS) of HLX (FIG. 7A) and consists of 11 transcripts (lnc-HLX-2-1 to lnc-HLX-2-11; FIG. 7B), of which lnc-HLX-2-7 was highly expressed in group 3 MBs (FIG. 7C). qRT-PCR analysis verified that lnc-HLX-2-7 was highly upregulated in group 3 MB cell lines (FIG. 1E) and PDX samples (FIG. 1F) compared to other groups. It was recently shown through a combined analysis of Group 3 and 4 MBs that they can be further subdivided into eight molecular subtypes, designated I to VIII.²⁰ In a combined analysis of group 3 and group 4 cases, lnc-HLX-2-7 showed high expression in subtype II and III MBs compared to other subtypes (FIG. 7D). lnc-HLX-2-7 functions as an oncogene in vitro. To investigate the function of lnc-HLX-2-7, we used antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to inhibit lnc-HLX-2-7 expression in D425 Med and MED211 MB cells. Transfection with ASO-lnc-HLX-2-7 significantly decreased lnc-HLX-2-7 expression compared to controls (ASO-luc) in both cell lines (p<0.01, FIG. 2A), which significantly suppressed MB cell growth and induced apoptosis (p<0.01, FIG. 2B, C). Next, CRISPR/Cas9 knock-down was used to generate single-cell colonies and further investigate the effect of lnc-HLX-2-7 in MB cells. We generated stable D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells, which constitutively expressed sgRNAs against lnc-HLX-2-7 to reduce lnc-HLX-2-7 expression (FIG. 2D). As expected, D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells showed reduced growth (FIG. 2E) and colony-forming ability (FIG. 2F) when compared D425 Med and MED211 control cells in vitro.

While the functions of the majority of lncRNAs are not yet known, some have been shown to function in cis by regulating the expression of neighboring genes.²⁵⁻²⁷ Since lnc-HLX-2-7 is located downstream of the HLX transcription start site (TSS; FIG. 7A), we determined whether lnc-HLX-2-7 regulates HLX expression; indeed, HLX expression was significantly reduced in D425 Med and MED211 cells following treatment with ASO-lnc-HLX-2-7 (FIG. 8). In addition, HLX knockdown significantly decreased the growth of D425 Med and MED211 cells (FIG. 9A-9B). While the current study focuses on the role of lncRNA HLX-2-7, understanding the molecular function of its host-coding gene HLX requires further investigation, which is ongoing.

lnc-HLX-2-7 regulates tumor formation in mouse intracranial xenografts. To evaluate the effect of lnc-HLX-2-7 on tumor growth in vivo, we established intracranial MB xenografts in NOD-SCID mice. D425 Med and MED211 control cells and D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells were pre-infected with a lentivirus containing a luciferase reporter. Weekly evaluation of tumor growth by bioluminescence imaging revealed significantly smaller tumors in mice transplanted with D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells compared to mice transplanted with control cells (n=9, p<0.05, FIG. 3A, B). At day 30, tumors were harvested and cut into sections and then subjected to Ki67 and TUNEL staining. Ki67 analysis showed reduced cell proliferation in D425 Med-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cell-transplanted mice (p<0.01, FIG. 3C). TUNEL analysis found out that lnc-HLX-2-7 depletion induced significantly higher percentage of TUNEL-positive cells than compared to mice transplanted with control cells (p<0.01, FIG. 3D). Kaplan-Meier plots demonstrated that the group transplanted with D425 Med and MED211-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells had significantly prolonged survival compared to the control (FIG. 3E). Together, these results demonstrate that lnc-HLX-2-7 regulates tumor growth in vivo and may function as an oncogene.

Transcriptional regulation of lnc-HLX-2-7 by the MYC oncogene. Since the majority of group 3 tumors exhibit elevated expression and amplification of the MYC oncogene,^(2,28) we hypothesized that MYC may regulate the expression of lnc-HLX-2-7. We therefore knocked down MYC by siRNA in D425 Med and MED211 cells, which decreased the expression of both MYC and lnc-HLX-2-7 (FIG. 4A), suggesting that MYC may be an upstream regulator of lnc-HLX-2-7. To further support this, we also identified a MYC-binding motif (E-box; -CACGTG-) 772 bp upstream of the putative TSS of lnc-HLX-2-7 using the JASPAR CORE database (http://jaspar.binf.ku.dk/)²⁹ (FIG. 4B). To test whether MYC could interact with the endogenous lnc-HLX-2-7 promoter, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was performed in D425 Med and MED211 cells. ChIP analysis revealed that MYC bound to the E-box motif within the upstream region of lnc-HLX-2-7 in D425 Med and MED211 cells, but not in DAOY cells (FIG. 4C). These results strongly suggest that MYC is a direct regulator of lnc-HLX-2-7.

JQ1 regulates lnc-HLX2-7 via MYC. Several previous studies have demonstrated that BRD4, a member of the bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) family, regulates MYC transcription and that JQ1 effectively suppresses cancer cell proliferation by inhibiting BRD4-mediated regulation of MYC in various types of cancer including MB.³⁰⁻³⁴ To test the JQ1 effect on lnc-HLX-2-7 regulation, we treated D425 Med and MED211 cells with different doses (100 or 300 nM) of the drug. As shown in FIG. 4D, both MYC and lnc-HLX-2-7 were downregulated in D425 Med and MED211 cells. In addition, downregulation of lnc-HLX2-7 by JQ1 was also confirmed in vivo (FIG. 10A-10C). Interestingly, overexpression of lnc-HLX-2-7 suppressed cell growth inhibition and downregulation of MYC by JQ1 (FIG. 11A-11C). Collectively, our results show that BRD4 inhibitors can be used to target MYC-mediated regulation of lnc-HLX-2-7 expression.

RNA sequencing detects lnc-HLX-2-7 interacting genes and pathways in group 3 MBs. To gain further insights into the functional significance of lnc-HLX-2-7, gene expression was measured by RNA-seq in D425 Med-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells and in xenografts derived from them. Among 1033 genes with a significant change in expression (FDR<0.05), 484 genes were upregulated and 549 genes were downregulated in cultured D425 Med-lnc-HLX-2-7-sgRNA cells (FIG. 12A). Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) revealed that lnc-HLX-2-7 knockdown preferentially affected genes associated with cell death (FIG. 12B). Of note, upstream regulator analysis showed that these genes contribute to important cancer pathways including MYC, KRAS, HIF1A, and EGFR signaling (FIG. 12C). In xenografts, among 540 genes with a significant change in expression (FDR<0.05), 409 genes were upregulated and 131 genes were downregulated (FIG. 5A). Differentially expressed genes detected by RNA-seq and pathway analysis were validated by qRT-PCR (FIG. 13). IPA analysis revealed that lnc-HLX-2-7 knockdown preferentially regulated genes associated with cell viability (FIG. 5B). Canonical IPA pathway analysis showed that the pathways involved in important energy metabolism (oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and sirtuin signaling pathways) were highly modulated by lnc-HLX2-7 (FIG. 5C).

Xenograft tumors were further characterized by single-cell RNA-seq. Subsequent to quality control, 3,442 and 6,193 single cells were obtained for D425 and lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted D425 respectively (FIG. 14). Integrated clustering of D425 control and lnc-HLX-2-7 depleted xenografts resulted in 5 clusters of single cells (FIG. 5D). Clusters 1 and 2 were almost entirely from D425 control xenografts, while clusters 3, 4, and 5 were almost exclusively from lnc-HLX-2-7 depleted xenografts (FIG. 5E). The top canonical pathways impacted in lnc-HLX-2-7-depleted single cell populations compared to D425 controls included the oxidative phosphorylation and sirtuin signaling pathways (FIG. 5F), consistent with the bulk RNA-seq data. Based on our earlier result that D425 control and lnc-HLX-2-7 depleted single cells form separate clusters, we performed pseudotemporal ordering of cells using Monocle3³⁵ to identify genes responsible for the transition from the D425 control to lnc-HLX-2-7-depleted state (FIG. 5G). A graph path corresponding to transition of cells from cluster 1 through 5 was observed (FIG. 15). The top 370 genes contributing to the cell transition were selected based on Moran's I and consisted of important genes involved in the development and malignancy of MB such as MYC, SOX4, CDK6, and CHD7.

lnc-HLX-2-7 expression is specific to group 3 MBs. We next confirmed group 3 specificity by visualizing lnc-HLX-2-7 expression by RNA-FISH in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples from D425 Med mouse xenografts and patients with MB. lnc-HLX-2-7 was expressed in D425 Med mouse xenografts but not normal brain (FIG. 16A-16B), and lnc-HLX-2-7 was readily detected in all group 3 MB samples but not in group 4 MBs (FIG. 6A, B). Quantitative analysis of the tissues further confirmed significantly higher lnc-HLX-2-7 expression in group 3 MBs compared to group 4 and SHH MBs with high sensitivity (95.0%) and specificity (95.0%, n=20, p<0.01, FIG. 6C and FIG. 17A-17C). Importantly, lnc-HLX-2-7 expression was highly correlated with MY C expression in group 3 MBs (n=20, p<0.01, FIG. 6D). This positive correlation between lnc-HLX-2-7 and MYC expression in group 3 MB was further validated in RNA-seq data from 175 MB patients (FIG. 18). Finally, lnc-HLX-2-7 overexpression was associated with poor patient outcomes and mirrored that of MYC expression in group 3 MB (FIG. 6E). Collectively, our analyses suggest that lnc-HLX-2-7 expression is specific to group 3 MBs and can be detected using an assay readily applicable to the clinical setting.

Discussion

The functions and clinical relevance of lncRNAs in MB are poorly described. Here we provide evidence that the lncRNA lnc-HLX-2-7 is clinically relevant and biologically functional in group 3 MBs. Using publicly available patient-derived RNA-seq datasets, we discovered that lnc-HLX-2-7 expression is particularly high in group 3 MBs compared to other groups. By depleting the expression of lnc-HLX-2-7 by CRISPR/Cas9 and ASOs, we showed both in vitro and in vivo that lnc-HLX-2-7 knockdown reduced proliferation and colony formation and increased apoptosis in MB.

The region encoded by lnc-HLX-2-7 has been reported as a group 3 MB-specific enhancer region.²⁴ Therefore, ncRNAs transcribed from this region may function as enhancer RNAs (eRNAs), a class of lncRNAs synthesized at enhancers, and may regulate the expression of their surrounding genes. We found that lnc-HLX-2-7 positively regulated the expression of the adjacent HLX gene. Although the mechanism by which lnc-HLX-2-7 regulates HLX remains unclear, lnc-HLX-2-7 may function as an eRNA in this context. HLX has recently been shown to be a key gene mediating BET inhibitor responses and resistance in group 3 MBs.³⁶ In this study, we discovered that lnc-HLX-2-7 controls HLX expression and contributes to MB cell proliferation, so it is possible that it may influence BET inhibitor resistance. In addition, our results show that the MYC oncogene regulates lnc-HLX-2-7 expression. A recent report suggests that the small molecule JQ1, a BET inhibitor that disrupts interactions with MYC, could be a therapeutic option to treat group 3 MBs.³⁷ However, group 3 MB tumors may also become resistant to BET inhibitor through mutations in the BRD4 gene, and transcription factors like MYC and HLX are poor therapeutic targets with short half-lives and pleiotropic properties.³⁸ We postulate that lnc-HLX-2-7 inhibition may provide a novel solution to BET inhibitor resistance or amplify the effects of BET inhibitors, a hypothesis that requires further investigation.

Recent evidence shows that HLX directly regulates several metabolic genes and controls mitochondrial biogenesis.³⁹ In the present study, we demonstrate that lnc-HLX2-7 modulated oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and sirtuin signaling pathways in intracranial xenograft models. These findings suggest that lnc-HLX-2-7 contributes to the metabolic state of group 3 MBs by regulating HLX expression. This newly discovered link between lnc-HLX-2-7 and metabolism may have important therapeutic implications.

Group 3 and group 4 MBs display clinical and genetic overlap, with similar anatomic location and presence of isochromosome 17q, so it is not currently possible to distinguish them without applying multi-gene expression or methylation profiling. lnc-HLX-2-7 may represent a useful single molecular marker that could distinguish group 3 from group 4 MBs. Furthermore, RNA-FISH using probes targeting lnc-HLX-2-7, a technique readily applicable in clinical laboratories, readily discriminated group 3 from group 4 MBs. It was recently shown through a combined analysis of Group 3 and 4 MBs that they can be subdivided into eight molecular subtypes, designated I to VIII.²⁰ Subtypes II and III are characterized by amplification of the MYC oncogene and are associated with the poorest prognosis.⁴⁰ We found that lnc-HLX-2-7 is specifically expressed in subtype II and III MBs. These findings strongly suggest that lnc-HLX-2-7 may be an ideal prognostic marker in group 3 MBs.

In conclusion, we show that the lncRNA lnc-HLX-2-7 is clinically and functionally relevant in group 3 MBs. Future studies will determine the mechanism by which lnc-HLX-2-7 promotes MB tumorigenesis. Together, our findings support the hypothesis that lncRNAs, and lnc-HLX-2-7 in particular, are functional in human MBs and may offer promising future opportunities for diagnosis and therapy.

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Supplementary Materials and Methods

Isolation of single cells from orthotopic xenografts. Thirty days after of the injection of D425 Med cells and D425 Med cells with lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted into the cerebellums, tumors were harvested and dissociated using a brain tumor dissociation kit (Miltenyi Biotech Inc., Auburn, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's protocol. To enrich human cells, mouse cells were depleted from the dissociated tumor cells using a mouse cell depletion kit (Miltenyi Biotech Inc.). The dissociated tumor cells were further sorted using a FACSAria (Beckton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) to obtain live and singlet cells. The cells were resuspended in DPBS with 0.04% BSA to a final concentration of 1×10⁶ cells per ml.

Processing of scRNA-seq data. Single-cell RNA-seq samples were classified into host and graft reads using XenoCell 1 and Xenome v1.0.1 2. The proportions of graft and host reads were 92.25% and 0.43% for D425, and 86.54% and 2.96% for lnc-HLX2-7 deleted D425 respectively. The remaining reads were classified as both, neither, or ambiguous. FASTQ files for graft were aligned to human genome hg38, indexed with GENCODE human annotations v34 3 and augmented with lncRNA annotations from LNCipedia v5.24, using 10× Genomics cellranger count (https://support.10xgenomics.com/) and STAR v 2.7.0d_0221 5. For downstream integrated analysis, both samples were combined and normalized for the number of mapped reads per cell across libraries using 10× Genomics cellranger aggr function. 5,547 and 10,039 cells were detected for D425 and lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted D425 respectively with post-normalization mean number of 18,034 reads per cell and median of 960 genes detected per cell.

Quality control and clustering analysis of scRNA-seq. Quality control and clustering of scRNA-seq data were performed using Seurat v3.1.26 in R v3.6.1. Low quality and doublet cells were filtered by selecting cells with <10% mitochondrial percentage and expressing 200-2500 genes. 3,442 and 6,193 cells were retained for D425 Med and lnc-HLX-2-7 deleted-xenograft samples after filtering. The count matrices for D425 and lnc-HLX-2-deleted xenograft were normalized and integrated using FindIntegrationAnchors and IntegrateData functions. Principle component analysis (PCA) was subsequently performed. For combined clustering, 15 PCs with resolution=0.5 were used to obtain 5 clusters. The marker genes associated with each cluster were identified by finding differentially expressed features across clusters and using log 2 fold change cutoff of ±0.2 and adjusted p-value of 0.05.

Supplementary References

-   1. Cheloni S, Hillje R, Luzi L, Pelicci P G, Gatti E. XenoCell:     classification of cellular barcodes in single cell experiments from     xenograft samples. bioRxiv. 2019. -   2. Conway T, Wazny J, Bromage A, et al. Xenome—a tool for     classifying reads from xenograft samples. Bioinformatics. 2012;     28(12):i172-178. -   3. Frankish A, Diekhans M, Ferreira A M, et al. GENCODE reference     annotation for the human and mouse genomes. Nucleic Acids Res. 2019;     47(D1):D766-D773. -   4. Volders P-J, Anckaert J, Verheggen K, et al. LNCipedia 5: towards     a reference set of human long non-coding RNAs. Nucleic Acids Res.     2019; 47(D1):D135-D139. -   5. Dobin A, Davis C A, Schlesinger F, et al. STAR: ultrafast     universal RNA-seq aligner. Bioinformatics. 2013; 29(1):15-21. -   6. Butler A, Hoffman P, Smibert P, Papalexi E, Satija R. Integrating     single-cell transcriptomic data across different conditions,     technologies, and species. Nat Biotechnol. 2018; 36(5):411-420.

TABLE 1 lncHLX2-7 Probes PROBE SEQ ACCESSION NAME FUNCTION REGION SEQUENCE ID NO GS10906 Inc_HLX2_71-1R LE   19-39 bp ccagacataaactcgccaagc 3 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_72-1R LE   40-57 bp ccgcatgtgtccaggcac 4 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_73-1R BL   58-83 bp gtgtgtgtgtgtgtgtgtgtttattc 5 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_74-1R BL  84-108 bp gcagtaacatcgaatgtgtgtgtgt 6 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_75-1R BL 109-132 bp aaaaaaatgaatggatgaaggaat 7 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_76-1R LE 133-155 bp ggatccccataaatactgcaatg 8 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_77-1R LE 156-179 bp tctctatggtgcaaacactcacaa 9 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_78-1R LE 180-206 bp tggttaatgcttagtcaaatacttttt 10 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_79-1R LE 207-231 bp  acaaacactgatctcttagctggaa 11 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_710-1R LE 232-255 bp caaccacctcagctattttgaatg 12 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_711-1R LE 256-277 bp gggaatactggctgtcctctcc 13 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_712-1R LE 278-303 bp cctaggaaactaataaacctcttttg 14 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_713-1R LE 304-327 bp gtctgtgtcaatttgtgacagcag 15 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_714-1R LE 328-355 bp acacatttctgttgttttaagtcactaa 16 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_715-1R LE 356-381 bp gagaagcagagaatgtagtgacacaa 17 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_716-1R LE 382-403 bp cagaagaagagtccatgtgcca 18 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_717-1R LE 404-426 bp ggaagacagaggaaaactggatg 19 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_718-1R LE 427-448 bp taccacacgcatgcttatgaga 20 GS10906 Inc_HLX2_719-1R LE 449-468 bp cctgggtggacgctaaatgc 21 LE: Label extenders; CE: Capture oligos; BL: Blocker oligos.

TABLE 2 SPRY4-IT1 Probes PROBE SEQUENCE SEQ ACCESSION NAME FUNCTION REGION ID NO NR_131221 SPRY4-IT11-4R LE   45-66 bp ggcagatcacttgaggtcagga 22 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT12-4R LE   67-86 bp ccttttgggaggccaaggta 23 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT13-4R LE  87-108 bp tggctcatgcctgtaatctcag 24 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT14-4R LE 109-126 bp aaagaaggcctggcgcag 25 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT15-4R BL 127-153 bp aaaaaaaaagaaagaaaaaaagaaaag 26 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT16-4R LE 154-177 bp cagcacagctaaatgatgtctcaa 27 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT17-4R LE 178-199 bp agctgcctatttaagaacccct 28 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT18-4R LE 200-224 bp gctgacaaaggaaaacaattttctg 29 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT19-4R LE 225-248 bp aagagcctctgctgaatttatgtg 30 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT110-4R LE 249-266 bp caccagcagggaccctcc 31 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT111-4R LE 267-284 bp actgctggcctcacccct 32 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT112-4R LE 285-307 bp agcaaaaaccaaatcagagttcc 33 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT113-4R LE 308-329 bp gattcctttcaaccaccagctc 34 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT114-4R LE 330-354 bp ccctattataaccccgatgtagtag 35 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT115-4R LE 355-380 bp actgggcatattctaaaatgtatctt 36 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT116-4R LE 381-398 bp gcagcatccgatggctcc 37 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT117-4R LE 399-417 bp ttggctctctggggacgat 38 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT118-4R LE 418-436 bp gagcttggcccacgatgac 39 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT119-4R LE 437-454 bp ggccagacatggggatgg 40 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT120-4R LE 455-473 bp catctgggcctgcagttga 41 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT121-4R LE 474-493 bp cctccagaggcagctgtcaa 42 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT122-4R LE 494-514 bp gcattcacaggctcccataac 43 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT123-4R LE 515-533 bp gcaggcaatggggatgttg 44 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT124-4R LE 534-550 bp ggatgggagcagccgct 45 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT125-4R LE 551-569 bp aagtcccaccaggaagcca 46 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT126-4R LE 570-590 bp cagattccccaattcatggaa 47 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT127-4R LE 591-613 bp taataggccttggaatcagaaag 48 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT128-4R LE 614-634 bp atgggcaatgctcagaaattt 49 NR_131221 SPRY4-IT129-4R LE 635-660 bp catgtcctacagataaagcaaaagaa 50

TABLE 3 MYC Probes PROBE SEQ ACCESSION NAME FUNCTION REGION SEQUENCE ID NO NM_002467 MYC1-6R LE   566-583 bp cgttgaggggcatcgtcg 51 NM_002467 MYC2-6R LE   584-607 bp catagttcctgttggtgaagctaa 52 NM_002467 MYC3-6R LE   608-628 bp gcaccgagtcgtagtcgaggt 53 NM_002467 MYC4-6R LE   629-649 bp cgtcgcagtagaaatacggct 54 NM_002467 MYC5-6R LE   650-672 bp ctgctggtagaagttctcctcct 55 NM_002467 MYC6-6R LE   673-691 bp gcagctcgctctgctgctg 56 NM_002467 MYC7-6R BL   692-704 bp ggcgccgggggct 57 NM_002467 MYC8-6R BL   705-726 bp tttcttccagatatcctcgctg 58 NM_002467 MYC9-6R LE   727-744 bp ggtgggcagcagctcgaa 59 NM_002467 MYC10-6R LE   745-761 bp ctaggggacaggggcgg 60 NM_002467 MYC11-6R BL   762-774 bp cccggagcggcgg 61 NM_002467 MYC12-6R LE   775-793 bp cgtaggagggcgagcagag 62 NM_002467 MYC13-6R LE   794-813 bp ggagaagggtgtgaccgcaa 63 NM_002467 MYC14-6R BL   814-832 bp cgtcgttgtctccccgaag 64 NM_002467 MYC17-6R BL   865-884 bp agctcggtcaccatctccag 65 NM_002467 MYC18-6R LE   885-904 bp tcaccatgtctcctcccagc 66 NM_002467 MYC19-6R LE   905-925 bp ggtcgcagatgaaactctggt 67 NM_002467 MYC20-6R LE   926-945 bp gatgaaggtctcgtcgtccg 68 NM_002467 MYC21-6R LE   946-969 bp acagtcctggatgatgatgttttt 69 NM_002467 MYC22-6R BL   970-988 bp ccgagaagccgctccacat 70 NM_002467 MYC30-6R BL llll-1124 bp gcggcggcgctcag 71 NM_002467 MYC31-6R LE 1125-1144 bp aggggtcgatgcactctgag 72 NM_002467 MYC32-6R LE 1145-1163 bp gggtaggggaagaccaccg 73 NM_002467 MYC33-6R BL 1164-1183 bp gcgagctgctgtcgttgaga 74 NM_002467 MYC34-6R LE 1184-1200 bp cgaggcgcaggacttgg 75 NM_002467 MYC35-6R LE 1201-1220 bp gagaaggcgctggagtcttg 76 NM_002467 MYC36-6R LE 1221-1240 bp gcagagaatccgaggacgga 77 NM_002467 MYC37-6R LE 1241-1260 bp ggaggactccgtcgaggaga 78 NM_002467 MYC38-6R BL 1261-1275 bp ggggctgccctgcgg 79 NM_002467 MYC39-6R BL 1276-1293 bp atggagcaccaggggctc 80 NM_002467 MYC40-6R LE 1294-1311 bp ggtgggcggtgtctcctc 81 NM_002467 MYC41-6R LE 1312-1331 bp tcctcagagtcgctgctggt 82 NM_002467 MYC42-6R LE 1332-1356 bp gatttcttcctcatcttcttgttcc 83 NM_002467 MYC43-6R LE 1357-1380 bp cctcttttccacagaaacaacatc 84 NM_002467 MYC44-6R LE 1381-1399 bp accttttgccaggagcctg 85 NM_002467 MYC45-6R LE 1400-1422 bp agcagaaggtgatccagactctg 86 NM_002467 MYC46-6R LE 1423-1441 bp gaggtttgctgtggcctcc 87 NM_002467 MYC47-6R LE 1442-1461 bp gaggaccagtgggctgtgag 88 NM_002467 MYC48-6R LE 1462-1481 bp gtggagacgtggcacctctt 89 NM_002467 MYC49-6R LE 1482-1502 bp gctgcgtagttgtgctgatgt 90 NM_002467 MYC50-6R LE 1503-1520 bp ttccgagtggagggaggc 91 NM_002467 MYC51-6R LE 1521-1541 bp ctcttggcagcaggatagtcc 92 NM_002467 MYC52-6R LE 1542-1565 bp actctgacactgtccaacttgacc 93 NM_002467 MYC53-6R LE 1566-1588 bp ggttgttgctgatctgtctcagg 94 NM_002467 MYC54-6R LE 1589-1606 bp tggggctggtgcattttc 95 NM_002467 MYC55-6R LE 1607-1624 bp cctcggtgtccgaggacc 96 NM_002467 MYC56-6R LE 1625-1646 bp tgtgttcgcctcttgacattct 97 NM_002467 MYC57-6R LE 1647-1664 bp tggcgctccaagacgttg 98 NM_002467 MYC58-6R BL 1665-1686 bp ccgttttagctcgttcctcctc 99 NM_002467 MYC62-6R BL 1744-1768 bp tggcttttttaaggataactacctt 100 NM_002467 MYC63-6R LE 1769-1789 bp ggacggacaggatgtatgctg 101 NM_002467 MYC64-6R LE 1790-1810 bp tgagcttttgctcctctgctt 102

TABLE 4 MYCN Probes SEQ PROBE ID ACCESSION NAME FUNCTION REGION SEQUENCE NO NM_005378 MYCN1-6R LE 1357-1375 bp gctcgctggactgagccct 103 NM_005378 MYCN2-6R LE 1376-1396 bp gaaggcatcgtttgaggatca 104 NM_005378 MYCN3-6R BL 1397-1415 bp ttgtgctgctggtggatgg 105 NM_005378 MYCN6-6R BL 1456-1478 bp ctctttatcttcttctgtggggg 106 NM_005378 MYCN7-6R LE 1479-1494 bp acgtggggacgcctcg 107 NM_005378 MYCN8-6R LE 1495-1514 bp gggatgacactcttgagcgg 108 NM_005378 MYCN9-6R BL 1515-1535 bp ctcaagctcttagcctttggg 109 NM_005378 MYCN10-6R BL 1536-1554 bp cgagtcagagtttcggggg 110 NM_005378 MYCN11-6R LE 1555-1573 bp tgcgacgctcactgtcctc ill NM_005378 MYCN12-6R LE 1574-1594 bp gctccaggatgttgtggtttc 112 NM_005378 MYCN13-6R BL 1595-1609 bp cgttgcggcgctggc 113 NM_005378 MYCN14-6R LE 1610-1630 bp tgagaaagctggaccgaaggt 114 NM_005378 MYCN15-6R LE 1631-1648 bp gcacgtggtccctgagcg 115 NM_005378 MYCN16-6R LE 1649-1672 bp ccttctcattctttaccaactccg 116 NM_005378 MYCN17-6R LE 1673-1691 bp aaaatgaccaccttggcgg 117 NM_005378 MYCN18-6R LE 1692-1714 bp ggacatactcagtggcctttttc 118 NM_005378 MYCN19-6R LE 1715-1732 bp cctcggcctggagggagt 119 NM_005378 MYCN20-6R LE 1733-1752 bp ttccagcaaaagctggtgct 120 NM_005378 MYCN21-6R LE 1753-1773 bp tcttgcctgcaatttttcctt 121 NM_005378 MYCN22-6R LE 1774-1796 bp attttctttagcaactgctgctg 122 NM_005378 MYCN23-6R LE 1797-1815 bp gcaagtccgagcgtgttca 123 NM_005378 MYCN24-6R LE 1816-1838 bp tgtccagttttgagaagcgtcta 124 NM_005378 MYCN25-6R LE 1839-1860 bp aaatgtgcaaagtggcagtgac 125 NM_005378 MYCN26-6R BL 1861-1887 bp cacaatgtttgtttaaaaaaaaaatca 126 NM_005378 MYCN27-6R LE 1888-1914 bp aaagtaaaccaacattcttaatgtcaa 127 NM_005378 MYCN28-6R LE 1915-1933 bp tcgacaggggaccgatttg 128 NM_005378 MYCN29-6R LE 1934-1951 bp gcccacccagagccgaac 129 NM_005378 MYCN30-6R LE 1952-1972 bp ccccacactggtggtcctact 130 NM_005378 MYCN31-6R BL 1973-1992 bp tctccaaggtcccagcagaa 131 NM_005378 MYCN34-6R BL 2027-2047 bp catggaggtgaggtggaggag 132 NM_005378 MYCN35-6R LE 2048-2067 bp tcaccaacgtttagcgctgt 133 NM_005378 MYCN36-6R LE 2068-2085 bp cccagaggctcccaaccg 134 NM_005378 MYCN37-6R LE 2086-2108 bp acacacaaggtgacttcaacagc 135 NM_005378 MYCN38-6R LE 2109-2131 bp tttctgttgtttggaaacttgga 136 NM_005378 MYCN39-6R LE 2132-2156 bp caccattttaaaaagaaggaatgac 137 NM_005378 MYCN40-6R LE 2157-2178 bp gtggcatctgctggaacttaag 138 NM_005378 MYCN41-6R LE 2179-2200 bp tatcaaatggcaaaccccttat 139 NM_005378 MYCN42-6R LE 2201-2219 bp cagaaatgttccccagggg 140 NM_005378 MYCN43-6R LE 2220-2242 bp ggcggatgtgtcaatggtattta 141 NM_005378 MYCN44-6R LE 2243-2268 bp tctcattacccaggatgtatacaaaa 142 NM_005378 MYCN45-6R LE 2269-2284 bp ggccgcaaaagccacc 143 NM_005378 MYCN46-6R LE 2285-2313 bp acttaggtatgaacttccagtctaatact 144 NM_005378 MYCN47-6R BL 2314-2340 bp cctcaaacattgaggtattattacagt 145 NM_005378 MYCN54-6R BL 2518-2552 bp catatatatatagtaaatttctttacaaa 146 agtttc NM_005378 MYCN55-6R LE 2553-2575 bp gaagaaacaggctaggaaaaagg 147 NM_005378 MYCN56-6R LE 2576-2601 bp ccaaacatgaacaaatacattaacag 148 NM_005378 MYCN57-6R LE 2602-2624 bp ttgcatttacccagttctatgca 149 NM_005378 MYCN58-6R LE 2625-2651 bp cattttgaagaaattaaacacagaact 150 NM_005378 MYCN59-6R LE 2652-2679 bp tgctataagatgcagcactaaatatata 151 NM_005378 MYCN60-6R LE 2680-2706 bp ttttcataaacatgaggtatttcaaag 152

TABLE 5 MALAT Probes PROBE SEQ ACCESSION NAME FUNCTION REGION SEQUENCE ID NO NR_002819 MALAT11-4R LE 4056-4078 bp caggctggttatgactcagaaga 153 NR_002819 MALAT12-4R LE 4079-4100 bp tgcatctaggccatcatactgc 154 NR_002819 MALAT13-4R LE 4101-4123 bp attcaccaaggagctgttttctc 155 NR_002819 MALAT14-4R LE 4124-4151 bp atataatcttttctgcctttacttatca 156 NR_002819 MALAT15-4R LE 4152-4174 bp ttattecccaatggaggtatgac 157 NR_002819 MALAT16-4R LE 4175-4200 bp cagtagtaagaatctcagggttatgc 158 NR_002819 MALAT17-4R LE 4201-4225 bp tggcatatgcagataatgttctcat 159 NR_002819 MALAT18-4R LE 4226-4250 bp tagctttcatttgcttaaaattttt 160 NR_002819 MALAT19-4R LE 4251-4275 bp ggtagattccgtaactttaaattgg 161 NR_002819 MALAT110-4R LE 4276-4301 bp gcttgacaagcaattaactttaaaat 162 NR_002819 MALAT111-4R LE 4302-4328 bp catcaattcattatttttgtggttata 163 NR_002819 MALAT112-4R LE 4329-4353 bp gacattgcctcttcattgtatttct 164 NR_002819 MALAT113-4R LE 4354-4379 bp ttttgtaaaagcagtattttgagatg 165 NR_002819 MALAT114-4R LE 4380-4403 bp catttcttttcgcttttattctgc 166 NR_002819 MALAT115-4R LE 4404-4430 bp tccaggattaatgtagtgtaacatttt 167 NR_002819 MALAT116-4R LE 4431-4455 bp tctcatttatttcggcttcttttat 168 NR_002819 MALAT117-4R LE 4456-4478 bp aatccacttgatcccaactcatc 169 NR_002819 MALAT118-4R LE 4479-4498 bp gcacacagcacagcctcctc 170 NR_002819 MALAT119-4R BL 4499-4520 bp gtctgaggcaaacgaaacattg 171 NR_002819 MALAT120-4R LE 4521-4547 bp aactcttctgataacgaagagatacct 172 NR_002819 MALAT121-4R LE 4548-4568 bp tgctcccagatgaaatgaagc 173 NR_002819 MALAT122-4R BL 4569-4590 bp ttaacagctgcctgctgttttc 174 NR_002819 MALAT123-4R BL 4591-4615 bp tgcagatgcaagttaaacttatctg 175 NR_002819 MALAT124-4R LE 4616-4640 bp agcacttatccctaacatgcaatac 176 NR_002819 MALAT125-4R LE 4641-4667 bp ttaagaactccacagctcttaaaaata 177 NR_002819 MALAT126-4R BL 4668-4690 bp ggagaaagtgccatggttgatat 178 NR_002819 MALAT127-4R BL 4691-4709 bp tcccctagggaaggggtca 179 NR_002819 MALAT128-4R LE 4710-4733 bp tggaaaaatttctcaatcctgaaa 180 NR_002819 MALAT129-4R LE 4734-4756 bp cctacaattttaaaaaggctcga 181 NR_002819 MALAT130-4R LE 4757-4777 bp ctgaagcccacaggaacaagt 182 NR_002819 MALAT131-4R LE 4778-4803 bp tctgagtgaagtgtactatcccatca 183 NR_002819 MALAT132-4R LE 4804-4828 bp gaaattatttaaagatgcaaatgcc 184 NR_002819 MALAT133-4R LE 4829-4854 bp gcactgatcactttagaggcttttaa 185 NR_002819 MALAT134-4R LE 4855-4878 bp caaatttccttagttggcatcaag 186 NR_002819 MALAT135-4R LE 4879-4901 bp gccttcagagattcaatgctaaa 187 NR_002819 MALAT136-4R LE 4902-4926 bp cacatcatgctattcctttcataga 188 NR_002819 MALAT137-4R LE 4927-4954 bp ttttagcagtaacatctgattctaacag 189 NR_002819 MALAT138-4R LE 4955-4982 bp ctacacaatttacatcacaacatgtaaa 190 NR_002819 MALAT139-4R LE 4983-5010 bp ttattattttgaatgatttaatggtttt 191 NR_002819 MALAT140-4R BL 5011-5043 bp ttctaaaagtatacattctctaataaaaatagt 192 NR_002819 MALAT141-4R LE 5044-5072 bp cactattttatttaaataaggagacagct 193 NR_002819 MALAT142-4R LE 5073-5096 bp ccccaacactgaactacagacaaa 194 NR_002819 MALAT143-4R BL 5097-5116 bp aagaatcccccccaagattg 195 NR_002819 MALAT144-4R LE 5117-5143 bp gcagacaaagtttctgaaagattagag 196 NR_002819 MALAT145-4R LE 5144-5168 bp tgatctggtccattaaagagtgttc 197 NR_002819 MALAT146-4R LE 5169-5188 bp tcgttcttccgctcaaatcc 198 NR_002819 MALAT147-4R LE 5189-5213 bp tgtctttcctgccttaaagttacat 199

TABLE 6 17-lncRNAs Associated with Prognostic Signature in MB Gene Name Penalized Coefficient lnc-TMEM258-3 −0.47771 ZNRF3-AS1 −0.24098 lnc-TMEM121-3 −0.17041 MAP3K14-AS1 −0.07358 LINC01152 −0.0675 KLF3-AS1 −0.05371 lnc-PRR34-l −0.0379 lnc-FOXD4L5-25 −0.03664 AC209154.1 −0.01405 TTC28-AS1 −0.00891 FAM222A-AS1 0.07403 LINC00336 0.042296 LINC01551 0.073539 H19 0.102589 lnc-RRM2-3 0.107783 lnc-CDYL-1 0.198379 AL139393.2 0.231787 17-lncRNAs identified from penalized COX regression analysis of Cavalli17 dataset. Negative coefficient values highlights good prognosis marker candidates and positive coefficient value highlights bad prognosis marker candidates.

TABLE 7 List of MB Cases with Clinical Features Analyzed in RNA-FISH Overall Tissue Survival Diagnosis to Last ID Subgroup Historogy Age Sex Visit 18828 SHH Nodular MB 9 M 16 18830 Group 4 Classic MB 12 M 37 18831 SHH Nodular MB 3 M 72 18834 SHH Nodular MB 20 M 200 18837 SHH Nodular MB 6 M 25 18838 SHH Nodular MB 2 F 215 18840 SHH Nodular MB 12 F 34 18841 Group 4 Nod MB with Anap 2 M 21 18842 Unknown MB 11 F 101 18843 Group 3 Mod A 12 F Unknown 18844 Unknown Classic MB 5 F 8 18845 Unknown Classic MB 16 F 58 18846 SHH Sev A M 28 18847 SHH Nodular MB 1 M Unknown 18850 Unknown PNET/Pineoblastoma 21 F 46 18851 Group 3 LC MB 9 M 9 18852 SHH Classic MB 22 M Unknown 18853 Unknown AT/RT 8 M 1M 18854 Unknown AT/RT 8M F 4 18855 Unknown AT/RT 11M M 1M 18856 SHH Nodular MB 11 M 109 18857 Unknown Medulloblastoma 11 F Unknown 18858 Unknown PNET 3 F 1M 18859 Group 4 MB 2 F 27 18860 Unknown Anaplastic MB 8 F 27 18861 SHH Classic MB 8 F 123 18862 Group 4 MB 10 Unknown Unknown 18863 Group 4 MB 5 M 198 18864 SHH Desmoplastic MB 7 M 119 18865 Group 4 F Mod A 10 M 119 18866 Group 4 Classic MB 9 M 103 18867 Unknown Mod A 18 M 84 18868 Group 4 Classic MB 15 M 118 18869 Group 4 MB 13 F 69 18870 Group 3 LC MB 5 M 10 18871 Group 4 Classic MB 13 F 121 18872 SHH Nodular MB 11M M 39 18873 SHH Nodular MB 38 F 207 18874 Unknown Mod A 9 M 170 18875 Unknown Medulloepithelioma 1 F 1 18876 Unknown Medulloepithelioma 1 F 19M 18877 SHH MB 15 F 63 18878 unknown Classic MB 6 F 18 18879 SHH Classic MB 38 M 32M 18880 Group 4 F Mod A 5 F 35 18881 SHH Classic MB 6 M 127 18882 Group 3 Classic MB 1 M 1M 18883 SHH MB with 16 F 167 desmoplasia 18884 SHH Sev A with Nodules M 12 18885 SHH Classic MB 3 M 100 18886 Group 4 Sev A 6 F 147 18887 Group 4 Sev A M 96 18888 Group 3 Sev A 18 M 12 18890 SHH LC MB 2 M 47 18891 Group 4 F Mod A 6 F 37 18892 Group 3 Sev A 12 M 23 18893 SHH Classic MB 38 M 12 18894 SHH F Mod A 16 M 20 18895 SHH Mod A F 12 18896 Unknown F Mod A 9 F 101 18897 Group 3 F Mod A 10 M Unknown 18898 SHH Nodular MB 29 F 28 18899 Unknown Classic MB 12 F 183 18900 Unknown PNET 10 F 55 18901 SHH Mod A 31 F 10 18902 Group 3 Unknown 4 M 12 18903 Unknown PNET 35 M 20 18904 unknown MB met to mandible 9 M 19 18905 WNT Mod A 9 F 187 18906 SHH Classic MB 2 F 120 18907 Group 4 Classic MB 8 F 31 56510 Unknown MB 11 F 101 61379 Group 3 Sev A 11 M 27 61380 Group 4 Mod A 32 F 60 61382 SHH Unknown 55 F 9 61383 SHH Nodular MB/MBEN 1 M Unknown 61384 Unknown MB 16 M 147 61386 Group 4 Nodular MB 28 M 25 61387 Unknown Medulloepithelioma 5 M 22 61403 Unknown PNET 1 M 34

TABLE 8 Primer sequences for qRT-PCR Target SEQ gene Primer sequence (5′ to 3′) ID NO. ACTB Forward: cctggcattgccgacaggatg 204 Reverse: ccgatccacacggagtacttgcg 205 lnc-HLX- Forward: gcttctctggcacatggact 206 2-7 Reverse: gtccttcgtgagcacagcat 207 HLX Forward: gcttctctggcacatggact 208 Reverse: gtccttcgtgagcacagcat 209 MYC Forward: aaaggcccccaaggtagtta 210 Reverse: gcacaagagttccgtagctg 211 MYCN Forward: ctaatactggccgcaaaagc 212 Reverse: cataaggggtttgccatttg 213 PTGR1 Forward: cagacacaataccactgtctttgg 214 Reverse: ctgcattaaccatcactgtttctc 215 FZD6 Forward: agactctctggggaacaggtc 216 Reverse: ggccagtgtcagtaatatcactctt 217 TRPM3 Forward: aatacttcagagaaaaggatgatcg 218 Reverse: gagtgctctctctcgttgacttc 219 NAMPT Forward: aaaagggccgattatctttacatag 220 Reverse: ccattcttgaagacagtatggagaa 221 NRBP2 Forward: aggacgagagcgacatcct 222 Reverse: ggctaggaaggtgctctgaag 223 NBAT1 Forward: gtttatccatcttcagctccactct 224 Reverse: tctgtgggtttcagtttcttcat 225 CCNG2 Forward: caacagctactatagtgttcctgagc 226 Reverse: tctcctctccacaactcatatcttc 227 ELK4 Forward: gcaagaacaagcctaacatgaatta 228 Reverse: acacaaacttctgaccattcacttt 229 CDKN2C Forward: ttgcaaaataatgtaaacgtcaatg 230 Reverse: ttagcacctctaagtagcagtctcc 231 CDK6 Forward: caaccaattgagaagtttgtaacag 232 Reverse: ggcactgtaggcagatattctttt 233

TABLE 9 Primer sequences for ChlP-qPCR Target SEQ gene Primer sequence (5′ to 3′) ID NO. HLX-2KB Forward: ttatttcttaagagagagggtgagg 234 Reverse: aatttgactgcaaacatttagacct 235 HLX-TSS Forward: tacgcagagtagcaagaagcact 236 Reverse: tggaggggaattaggaacaag 237 E-box Forward: taataaacaaaaccgcctagatgag 238 Reverse: aaaggctttacataaatcggcttac 239

TABLE 10 Top 50 Differentially Upregulated lncRNAs in Group 3 MB Fold Change Gene.ID (log2) p-value lnc-STAP1-13 12.3151 1.0645E−04 Inc-SLITRK1-1 12.2487 9.3581E−09 lnc-MYO3A-l 11.7062 6.4649E−06 lnc-AXIN1-1 10.4428 6.0770E−05 lnc- 10.3653 1.0766E−16 POU5F1B-5 LINC02342 9.9339 1.7037E−09 lnc-PDGFA-17 9.8875 6.7468E−08 lnc- 9.7623 6.1748E−17 SERPINB3-3 lnc-STAP1-2 9.6277 6.6276E−12 LINC01467 9.3207 2.0908E−20 lnc-IGLL1-4 9.2966 3.1889E−05 lnc-HLX-1 8.7256 7.1143E−22 lnc-SYT1-2 8.6991 5.2255E−10 lnc-SYK-13 8.4236 3.7254E−06 lnc-HLX-5 7.8451 1.2979E−14 lnc-NFATC1-1 7.6858 7.9406E−06 lnc-APBA2-9 7.6460 6.4510E−09 lnc- 7.5857 6.3922E−10 MAGEA12-3 LINC02378 7.2464 2.8975E−06 lnc-PRSS1-1 7.0733 4.6988E−13 lnc-MGST1-7 6.8156 8.2139E−12 ESRG 6.7417 1.5129E−36 lnc- 6.5451 2.5660E−06 KIAA1210-1 lnc-PRSS1-7 6.5187 7.3174E−13 lnc-VCX-6 6.4619 1.2289E−06 lnc-ANXA1-3 6.4276 1.3172E−11 lnc-BARD1-1 6.4074 1.5158E−08 lnc-CSAG3-l 6.3320 2.2890E−10 lnc-EHF-1 6.2428 1.4561E−06 lnc-UTP23-12 6.2302 6.4442E−09 lnc-WRN-6 6.1788 1.9794E−07 lnc-WRN-5 6.1445 6.4673E−06 lnc-MYO3A-2 6.1383 3.6319E−06 lnc-DDX60L-3 6.0955 2.0418E−07 lnc-HLX-6 6.0672 1.3604E−23 LINC01501 6.0319 1.8883E−16 lnc-HLX-2 5.9981 7.5051E−11 lnc-FRG2C-5 5.9857 7.8191E−04 lnc-ALX1-2 5.9346 2.2683E−44 lnc-PLXNA2-3 5.9338 3.8248E−04 LINC02466 5.9253 4.1574E−06 lnc-RAB17-1 5.8827 4.4016E−12 lnc- 5.8815 3.0865E−04 PLA2G4A-5 lnc-CCT8L2-1 5.8456 1.3576E−04 LINC01323 5.8226 2.5514E−06 lnc-BMP2-2 5.7603 8.9155E−06 lnc-WRN-3 5.7561 2.3437E−09 lnc-RMDN1-2 5.6879 2.9128E−05 lnc- 5.6778 1.7633E−32 SLC22A16-2 LINC01324 5.6254 7.7208E−12 

1. A method comprising detecting long non-coding (lnc) RNA HLX2-7 in a biological sample obtained from a patient having or suspected of having medulloblastoma.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the detecting step is performed using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the biological sample is a tissue sample.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to lncHLX2-7 and branched DNA signal amplification.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:3-4 and 8-21.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:3-4 and 8-21.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:5-7.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:5-7.
 10. The method of claim 2, further comprising detecting MYC expression in the biological sample.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the biological sample is a tissue sample.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to MYC and branched DNA signal amplification.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:51-56, 59-60, 62-63, 66-69, 72-73, 75-78, 81-98, 101-102.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:51-56, 59-60, 62-63, 66-69, 72-73, 75-78, 81-98, 101-102.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:57-58, 61, 64-65, 70-71, 74, 79-80, 99-100.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:57-58, 61, 64-65, 70-71, 74, 79-80, 99-100.
 18. The method of claim 10, further comprising detecting lnc RNA SPRY4-IT1 in the biological sample.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the biological sample is a tissue sample.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample.
 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to lnc SPRY4-IT1 and branched DNA signal amplification.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:22-25 and 27-50.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:22-25 and 27-50.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the probes further comprise SEQ ID NO:26.
 25. The method of claim 18, further comprising detecting MYCN in the biological sample.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the biological sample is a tissue sample.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the tissue sample is a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sample.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the FISH assay comprises oligonucleotide probes that hybridize to MYCN and branched DNA signal amplification.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the probes comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:103-104, 107-108, 111-112, 114-125, 127-130, 133-144, 147-152.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the probes comprise SEQ ID NOS:103-104, 107-108, 111-112, 114-125, 127-130, 133-144, 147-152.
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the probes further comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOS:105-106, 109-110, 113, 126, 131-132, 145-146.
 32. The method of claim 30, wherein the probes further comprise SEQ ID NOS:105-106, 109-110, 113, 126, 131-132, 145-146.
 33. The method of claim 18, further comprising detecting one or more lnc RNAs selected from the group consisting of MIR100HG, USP2-AS1, lnc-CFAP100-4, ARHGEF7-AS2, lnc-HLX-1, lnc-EXPH5-2, lnc-CH25H-2, and lnc-TDRP-3. 